Computer Use in Early Childhood Education Essay

Abstract The importance of the child’s development in early years of education has reached the stage where it becomes critical that learning programs becomes a global issue. Understanding changes and undertaking practice is fundamental in student learning. The purpose of this article is to increase our perception on the different effects of using computer technology in early childhood setting. In answering the question ‘What is the purpose of education? I started at that time from the observation that man lives in a world of objects which influence him and which he wishes to influence, and so he must know these objects in their characteristics, their essence and their relation to one another and to mankind. Friedrich Froebel Keywords : Early Childhood, Computer, Technology Education, Curriculum Introduction Throughout educational history, world philosophers have wrestled with understanding the myriad of questions and problems surrounding the education of society’s children. Historically, many early childhood educators supported the idea that children should be trained as soon as possible to become productive members of the larger society so that the cultural heritage of the society could be preserved from generation to generation; this cultural imposition theory has been prevalent throughout the educational history of the world (Staff, 1998. Early Years of Education Early Childhood Education is the term commonly used to describe the formal teaching and care of young children by people other than their family or in settings outside of the home. The developmental definition of early childhood education spans the human life from birth to age eight. However, typically early childhood education covers the period from birth to when a child starts school and this can be as early as five years of age as in New Zealand. This time period is widely considered the most vulnerable and crucial stage of a person’s life. The early years of childhood are receiving increased public attention around the world. Issues on providing quality service and ensuring a good foundation for lifelong learning is generating a new interest in the academic community by adapting different theoretical perspective, pedagogy and philosophy. There are several key components to understanding how young children learn, and therefore how they need to be taught. In New Zealand, the process of creating the early childhood curriculum was inspired by the evidence of not only a bi cultural society but a multi cultural and multi racial society. CurriculumCurriculum is defined in Te Wha? riki as ‘†¦ the sum total of the experiences, activities and events, whether direct or indirect, which occur within an environment designed to foster children’s learning and development’ (Ministry of Education, 1996, p. 10 cited in Nutall, 2003). This definition of curriculum as ‘everything that happens’ is acknowledged in the curriculum theory literature (e. g. Cornbleth, 1990 cited in Nutall, 2003) and it is a description that resonates with the holistic, child-centred philosophy of early childhood education in New Zealand. The central expectation of Te Wha? riki is that early childhood centres and services will articulate ‘their’ curriculum in a conscious, culturally situated way. (Nutall, 2003). The implementation of Te Wha? riki, which was inspired by The Socio Cultural Constructivism principle of Vygotzsky, introduced the early childhood teachers in New Zealand to the most recent curriculum tradition. One of the reasons socio-cultural approaches resonate with teachers in childcare centres is the way in which children are understood to be learning through their experiences in the centre, including routine happenings such as play and mealtimes. (Nutall, 2003) Within this pedagogy, both the teachers and students are understood to be engaged in a process of actively constructing knowledge, through their interactions with time, space, objects and people. Children learn through collaboration with adults and peers, through guided participation and observation of others, as well as through individual exploration and reflection. There are five different developmental domains of children which all relate to each other. They are easily referred to as the SPICE of life: Social – Refers mostly to the ability to form attachments, play with others, co-operation and sharing, and being able to create lasting relationships with others. Physical – Development of Fine (small) and Gross (large) Motor Skills. Intellectual – The process of making sense of the world around them. Creative – The development of special abilities creating talents. Music, Art, Writing, Reading, and Singing are all ways for creative development to take place. Emotional – Development of self-awareness, self-confidence, and coping with feelings as well as understanding them. http://www. teachingexpertise. com/articles/computers-and-early-years-1124 According to Yelland (1999), Educators beliefs such as Montessori, Isaacs, Froebel, and Steiner, has led to early childhood programs that are characterized by their adherence to such traditional principles, manifested in unstructured environments, informal contexts, and learning through active exploration and play. Indeed, early pioneers such as Montessori advocated relatively structured learning opportunities, whereas Froebel’s views supported a less formal structure. However, both Froebel and Montessori seemed to agree that children learned most effectively from self-directed activities that gave them a high level of empowerment and ownership. Technology Education Technology education all over the world is evolving dramatically in a very fast phase as international academic institutions explore the implication of their present status and the rate they are progressing as compared to other developed countries. It is quite safe to say that, it is the brewing competition over the magnitude of the technology education, which comprises the curriculum that is becoming the main catalyst to these rapid changes. This notion could set the trend on how Early Childhood Curriculum should be designed and be implemented. What should be the content of this curriculum to help the children be prepared for technology education? Is the integration of technological tools beneficial to the learning outcomes of the students? Are computers developmentally appropriate to early childhood students?. Introduction of these devices and in some cases integration of the use of the technology in the existing curriculum has been a massive ground for global arguments. What brought this massive revolution to this day’s education is coherent to how fast the world is changing. Change is inevitable and sometimes predictable as it may seem, most of us will still be caught unaware and mislaid. As members of the community everyone takes part in the development of tomorrow’s citizens. The early childhood sector has been heavily influenced by particular views of child development and how children learn. Such views are often based on developmental psychology and seek to develop practices that are developmentally appropriate (Hirsh, 2004, cited in Zevenbergen & Logan , 2008) The author believed that whether traditional or technology education, students’ experiences, social influence, and development are the main considerations on the part of the educators/teachers approach in delivering knowledge and evaluating learning outcomes. There have been several studies and articles (Cordes & Miller, 2000; Haugland, 2000; Plotz, 2007) on arguments about the content of technology in early childhood, or the appropriate age to expose children to computers. Regardless what the parents thoughts are, whether or not they choose to expose their children to computers, eventually they will be introduced to technology when they enter school. To this day it is still uncertain on whether or not extensive use of computers for young people could be detrimental to their being, physically, socially and intellectually to say the least. What is certain is that technology is at hand and here to stay. Computers are increasingly present in early childhood education settings. Toward the end of the 1980s, only one-fourth of licensed pre schools had computers. Today almost every preschool has a computer, with the ratio of computers to students changing from 1:125 in 1984 to 1:22 in 1990 to 1:10 in 1997. This last ratio matches the minimum ratio that is favourable to social interaction (Clements and Nastasi 1993; Coley et al. 1997). In the event that the use of this technology could be measured in education settings, what are we to assume or expect in the different household settings. No one knows the exact number of computers in each and every particular household. Are Computers Developmentally Appropriate? There are many researchers, organizations, and other programs that recognize the benefits of using computers with young children. One major supporter of children and technology is the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). They created a lengthy position statement on Technology and Young children that states, â€Å"The potential benefits of technology for young children’s learning and development are well documented† (1996). Susan Haugland, a professor of child development and president of K. I. D. S. & Computers, Inc. , has done research and recently published an article about the benefits of technology called, â€Å"Computers and Young Children. † In this article, Susan states that an appropriate age to introduce children to computers is at age 3. She also goes on to state that, â€Å" children 3 and 4 years of age are developmentally ready to explore computers, and most early childhood educators see the computer centre as a valuable activity centre for learning. Children this age are developmentally within Piaget’s preoperational stage. This means they are concrete learners who are very interested in using newly learned symbolic representation – speaking, writing, drawing (including maps and geometric figures) and using numbers. Children this age are extremely active and mobile. They often have difficulty sitting still; they need frequent changes in learning modalities; and they want a variety of physical experiences involving dance, physical play, climbing and sports. Pre operational children are also are continuing their mastery of language, and exploring various facets of social behavior. Another large organization that supports technology in early childhood education is NETC (Northwest Educational Technology Consortium). They created a resource website for educators and providers called, Early Connections: Technology in Early Childhood Education. This website offers information on how to implement technology into child care centres, preschools, kindergarten, primary grades, and in before/ after school programs. They also offer suggestions on classroom arrangement, software selection, health & safety, hardware, and other resources. However, I think the most valuable information they offer is how technology is linked to learning and the curriculum. They state that one of the main benefits of computer use is because it enhances the five development domains: social and emotional, language, motor, and cognitive skills (Early Connections, â€Å"Learning and Development,† n.d. ). Clearly many of these developmental needs match up well with appropriate use of technology in the classroom, especially exploration, manipulation of symbolic representation, matching alternative learning styles, and quickly changing learning modalities that individual students can control and pace to meet their individual needs. It is also a very powerful tool for students with specific learning disabilities (Wardle,1999). If the goal for a certain age child is to learn to write personal journals, then the computer can naturally support that through writing software, digital cameras, and other methods. A science goal that requires learning the solar system can be augmented by using specific CD ROMS and accessing web sites. Similarly, studying extinct and endangered animals becomes more real and educational through the use of specific software and web sites. Lee and O’Rourke (2006), reported an Australian project on ICT use in Early Childhood setting, they discussed that teachers experimented with a range of activities and, in keeping with Piagetian perspectives of early development and learning, attempted to connect concrete experiences with those experiences children accessed on the computer. An example of this is the work done in one early childhood centre with the software ‘Millie’s Math House: Build-A-Bug’. The children created a ‘critter’ on the software and then recreated it in 3D using playdough, matchsticks and other collage materials. Making a connection between the image and the object was a powerful tool for engaging reluctant learners and the teacher was encouraged by the student response to the experience. Another example of this type of experience was developed by a teacher in a rural pre-school centre who used the program ‘Sammy’s Science House: Workshop’ to design, make and appraise a toy or machine. The children were invited to design a machine using the software and to describe what its function was. The teacher suggested that some children might like to build the machine out of materials of their choice. The use of computers in a fully integrated classroom is endless. Software can be used to assist not only the learners but the teachers as well in so many ways. Although research has proven many beneficial reasons to include technology in early childhood programs, there are many who believe that computers are not appropriate and could have harmful effects on young children. Jane Healy, an educational psychologist, wrote a book called, Failure to Connect: How Computers Affect Our Children’s Minds- for Better and Worse (1998), in the book she states that children should be 7 before introducing them to computers due to the harmful effects of computer use on their development. Her view is one that is shared with another large organization, The Alliance for Childhood. The Alliance for Childhood published a large report, Fool’s Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood, which claims â€Å"computers can have damaging consequences for children under age 7 in terms of their health, social relationships, and intellectual development† (Cordes & Miller, 2000, pg. 3). In this report they stated that, â€Å"Computers in childhood may expose children to the risk of a broad range of developmental setbacks† (Cordes & Miller, 2000, pg.3). A wide array of experts release a statement about the ways computers are reshaping children’s lives, at home and at school, in profound and unexpected ways. They stress that the use of technology is a distraction from the urgent social and educational needs of the low income children. And concludes with the following statement, â€Å"Those who place their faith in technology to solve the problems of education should look more deeply into the needs of children†. The renewal of education requires personal attention to students from good teachers and active parents, strongly supported by their communities. It requires commitment to developmentally appropriate education and attention to the full range of children’s real, low-tech needs — physical, emotional, and social, as well as cognitive† (The Alliance for Childhood, 2000. ) While both views provide compelling arguments, one can not avoid the obvious fact that technology will continue to evolve and will become a more significant part of the daily life. Use of technology in the early childhood program must not be a goal unto itself: the purpose is not to teach children how to use computers; they can do this as they get older, just as they can learn to drive a car later in their lives (Wardle, 1999). Appropriate use of technology in the classroom is to expand, enrich, implement, individualize, differentiate, and extend the overall curriculum. Computers are not to replace physical play, outdoor exploration of the community and of nature; art, music and dance; learning specific social skills and moral values, and experiencing diversity in a myriad of ways. Common sense suggests that we consider the potential harm, as well as the promised benefits, of this change and not rush forward with computer usage in childhood. As an educator we always want the best learning outcome for our students, and to extensively use whatever possible ways to achieve this goal. The only true education comes through the stimulation of the child’s powers by the demands of the social situations in which he finds himself. (James, 2005) Teachers’ Perception on the use of Computer Technology inside the classroom. One more compelling issue as regards to the use of technology in early years of education is the preparedness of the early childhood teachers in the use of technology inside their classrooms. Hsiac (2003) stated that the most important aspect of good early childhood program is its teacher, as classrooms practices are influenced by teachers’ beliefs. May (1997, 2000) has traced this rich heritage of multiple ideological, theoretical and pragmatic influences, showing how each successive trend has challenged early childhood teachers to re-examine their practice. (Cited in Nutall, 2003) Fact is not all early childhood teachers embraces the idea of technology education, some of them are faced with ethical dilemma in the use of information technology, (Myers & Miller 1996). According to Morrison (2007) there are, â€Å"three challenges confronting early childhood teachers when implementing effective programs using technology in their instruction: 1. ) Their own personal acceptance of technology, 2. ) Confidence that technology has a positive influence on children, and 3. ) Decisions about how to use technology in early childhood programs and classrooms† (pg.383). It’s important for teachers to accept technology and learn how to use it effectively. (cited in Plotz, 2007). Nutall’s (2003) research suggests to explore some provisions of frequent opportunities for teachers to make explicit their knowledge and assumptions about their role. As well as ideas about how children learn through the various aspects of their daily life. Furthermore, such research must take into account the way in which teachers in early childhood constantly teach each other about the deeply inter subjective and interpretive task of working with very young children. Aside from personal struggle there were also some issues being raised in accordance with the role of early childhood teachers in technology education. Gibbons (2006) mention some tensions between the early childhood educators and the government sector which in becoming a challenge for teachers and in one way or another becomes one of the reason for the derail of the their readiness and compliance of the task. Teachers as well as student possessed certain individuality; the trust that teachers should adjust to their student’s ability, will not be the same as students will adjust to their teachers ability. As teachers we are given the higher responsibility of being, according to Vygotzsky, the more knowledgeable other. Complex as it may be or to others simple as it may seem, early childhood teachers should take a step ahead to deliver this overwhelming educational demand. It’s important for teachers to accept technology and learn how to use it effectively. Morrison (2007) offers these guidelines for educators (pg. 384): Educate yourself on the potential benefits of computers and technology. Be willing to try new ways of using technology to help your children learn new knowledge and skills. Collaborate with colleagues in your school and school district to explore ways to use technology. Collaborate with parents and community members, many of whom have skills that you can use and apply. It is also important for teachers to have a positive attitude toward technology to create an appropriate classroom environment. Children will have a difficult time embracing technology if their teacher doesn’t approach the situation with a positive outlook. Summary and Conclusion Endless as it may seem, the ongoing issue of Information and Communication Technology in Early Childhood Education is giving the community of education a more clear and vivid guidelines on the process of creating, conceptualising and implementing policies and standards suitable to each and every environment. Immense concerns coming from diversity of culture and practice takes place. Analysing the impact of using technology in early childhood classrooms have established a variety of implications on different members of the academic community. Teachers, students, policy makers, writers and researchers, centre, and of course the ministry have presented diverse opinions and views on different aspects over this highly arguable issue. Because of the ongoing conflict of interests, the government of New Zealand particularly the Ministry of Education have gone through a major curriculum reforms leading to the development of a national technology curriculum. Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education 1995) became mandatory for all schools in February 1999. The development of the national technology education policy and the way in which the curriculum was developed, was described in an article by Jones(2003). This curriculum area will be compulsory for all students from years 1–10. Aside from Jones (2003), the evidence of issue concerning the integration of Information Technology in Early Childhood Education curriculum is becoming countless Gibbons (2006), Compton & Hardwood (2005), Zebenbergen & Logan (2008), Walters & Fehring (2009), Mawson (2007) to cite a few, and of course publications from the Ministry of Education (1993), (1995) and (1996) is as substantial. Recent development in Early Childhood Education offers exciting opportunities for exploration on how these technological tools will continue to improve children’s learning development and provides new stage to discover different aspects of teachers role. The challenge for parents and educators is to maintain a balance on the possible huge and massive effect of this ongoing evolution in technology education. * draft journal article for International Journal for Early Years References Clements, D. H. , and Nastasi, B. K. (1992). Computers and early childhood education. 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N. , (2006) The politics of technology in early childhood in Aotearoa/New Zealand Fitting early childhood educators in the ICT grid, Australian Journal of Early Childhood 31. No. 4 Haugland, S. (2000). Computers and Young Children. ERIC Digest. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from http://ceep. crc. uiuc. edu/ Hsiac, W. (2003), Comparison of Montessori and Non Montessori Teachers beliefs about Developmentally appropriate practice in pre school, Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley James, 2005 retrieved from http://www. wilderdom. com/experiential/JohnDeweyQuotes. html Jones, A. 2003, The Development of a National Curriculum in Technology for New Zealand, International Journal of Technology and Design Education 13, 83–99 Lee, L.& O’Rourke,M. (2006) Information and Communication Technologies: Transforming views in literacies in early childhood setting, Early years, Vol 26,p 49-62 Marrison B. (2007), Factors affecting learning in technology in the early years, at school, Intl Journal of Technology and Design Education May, H. (1997) The Discovery of Early Childhood: the development of services for the care and education of veryyoung children, mid eighteenth century Europe to mid twentieth century New Zealand (Auckland, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books/NZCER). May, H.(2000) Politics in the Playground: the world of early childhood in postwar New Zealand Wellington, Bridget Williams Books/NZCER). Ministry of Education, (1996) Te Wha? riki. He Wha? riki Ma? tauranga mo? nga? Mokopuna o Aotearoa: early childhood curriculum (Wellington, Learning Media). Ministry of Education ,(1998) Quality in Action. 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Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions (China and Germany) Essay

Gerard Hendrik Hofstede (born October 2, 1928 in Haarlem) is a Dutch expert in cultural studies [GHW]. Hofstede (1980) surveyed 88,000 IBM employees working in 66 countries and then ranked the countries on different cultural dimensions. His research resulted in four dimensions (power distance; individualism versus collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; and masculinity and femininity). In the beginning, China was not included in this study but later Bond and Hofstede looked at Chinese values. From this research they included a fifth cultural value dimension called: long-term versus short-term orientation [SKR]. Power Distance Index (PDI) The Power Distance index shows how less powerful individuals accept and expect an unequal distribution of power. High power distance means that power is unevenly distributed; low power distance means that power is more evenly distributed [TIP]. According to Geert Hofstede’s 5 dimensions China is located in the higher ranking at 80. That means that this society â€Å"believes that inequalities amongst people are acceptable† [GER]. The Power is centralised and the management is autocratic. The subordinate-superior relationship tends to be cleaved and â€Å"there is no defence against power abuse by superiors† [GER]. This means that â€Å"people are less willing to challenge authority which is likely due to old communism beliefs which still have a strong influence on people’s behaviour† [SKR]. Managers expect subordinates to obey them. Subordinates automatically show respect and know that they have to earn their respect. They also expect to be told what to do. Therefore social interactions are formal. In general we can say that the Chinese are â€Å"optimistic about people’s capacity for leadership and initiative† [GER]. The general attitude of the Chinese is that you should not fulfil any duties beyond your rank [GER]. In class I have noticed that the status of the teacher has to be respected and privileges are expected. To listen to a different example: In China it is very common that the workers should come 15 minutes earlier to a meeting and the manager with the most power is always five to fifteen minutes later. That shows that the managers enjoy more privileges. I was able to observe that the compliance of  the hierarchy is maintained very strictly. Individualism versus Collectivism(IDV) This index shows the extent to which individuals are integrated into groups or not [TIP]. In societies with a high IDV index particularly individual rights are protected: self-determination, I experience and personal responsibility are important. In a collectivist culture with a low IDV-index contrast, the integration dominates in any kind of networks. The team spirit is much more characteristic of such a culture [GHW]. According to Geert Hofstede China is located in the lower ranking at 20. â€Å"In collectivist cultures such as China, people work together in groups and often put the needs of that group ahead of their own personal wants† [SKR]. They share responsibility. The Chinese who are doing business tend to stay with the same partners and suppliers to keep loyalty and not worsen relationships [SKR]. In China the community had always the priority. Tian xia wei gong said the ancients – under the sky everything serves the community. In the Confucian influenced social system everyone expects from the individual subordination, self-control and willingness to make sacrifices in order that the family and state can benefit from it. Individualism is a term which has always had a negative connotation in China, because people associated it with egoism. The Chinese prefer a holistic thinking. An example, if a Chinese writes his address down he will start with the country, then the city and the street and at the end his own name. The traditional Chinese medicine is a prime example for holistic thinking. Each disease is always seen in the context of the whole body. Collectivism promotes harmony. In China people focus on harmony and shun the direct confrontation. Harmony is achieved by giving â€Å"face† to others and avoiding losing your own â€Å"face†. When I talked to my Chinese friend â€Å"David Zhang† and asked him about his study he will begin in Germany, he told me that this was a family decision. Of course, it was his wish but without the consent of the family he could never study abroad. Even if he had the money for it he would not do so, because his family is much more important to him. Masculinity / Femininity(MAS) This MAS index shows the expression of the dominant values that are  established in both sexes. Hofstede ranks to the female values of care, cooperation and modesty. As masculine values ​​Hofstede defines competitive readiness and self-confidence. A high MAS index shows a dominance of â€Å"typically male† values, a low MAS index shows a dominance of â€Å"typically female† values [GHW]. ​​According to Geert Hofstede China is located in the higher ranking at 66. It is more a masculine society – a society which is success oriented. You can see it on the fact that many of the Chinese sacrifice their leisure time to work [SKR]. I have noticed that shops are open until very late at night. Officially, nowadays women enjoy the same rights as men in the workplace. The Communist Party in China has made efforts to put both genders on almost the same level. Anyway traditional Confucian thinking does not fit easily with this term of gender equality. It seems to be a bit ironic that the liberalisation policies of the last decade might have turned around many of the advances made by women under the prevalent conditions of the hard-line regimes. Through the traditional values it is the boys who have strong preferences. The men own most of the power and responsibility although there is a high level of acceptance between genders in China [SKR]. Unfortunately, women in executive positions enjoy a low appreciation. There are successful women in all fields, they are among the winners of the economic reforms, but also among the losers. If the economic situation in the factories is poor and staff is reduced, they are the first to be fired. If high school fees are too high, it is usually the daughter, who leave school and has to go to work [BUC]. Uncertainty avoidance(UAI) The UAI index shows a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. Cultures with a high UAI, want to avoid the uncertainty and are characterized by many uncommitted laws, policies and security measures. Members are emotional and nervous. Cultures which are tolerant to accept uncertainty have a few rules that are changeable and thus tend to relativism. The members are phlegmatic and expect from their environment not to show feelings [GHW]. According to Geert Hofstede China has a low score of 30 on uncertainty avoidance. China has a high degree of acceptance of uncertainty. This society does not try to take control of the future, and therefore China’s society is not afraid of unforeseen situations [SKR]. The  Chinese consider written and oral arrangements sceptical. Contracts should be structured so that there is still the possibility to change the contract afterwards. The Chinese are very flexible. In case of conflict, a mentor is used, which takes care of the problems of both families instead of going to court. Uncertainty avoidance means for the Chinese first: What does my boss want? If he agrees with my ideas, then I can put it on. But I do not certainly know if he will like my ideas, I rather not ask him indeed I better wait for instructions. In this case, I can do no wrong, because the manager is responsible for all decisions, therefore the uncertainty is resolved. I could observe that the Chinese remain calm when unforeseen situations occur. They do not get upset about the situation. They can quickly accept the situation and adapt their surroundings. Long-term or short-term orientation(LTO) This LTO index â€Å"deals with the issue of virtue. Long-term cultures value thrift and perseverance; short-term cultures value tradition, the fulfilment of social obligations and protecting one’s ‘face’ or honour. A long-term orientation is associated with East Asian countries† [TIP]. According to Geert Hofstede China has a high score of 118. Hofstede analysed that China has the highest ranking of all countries in long-term orientation. It is 30% higher than the Asian average score. China is a country with a strong long-term orientation. It can be seen from the fact that China preferred a long-term development and indirect enforcement strategies [SKR]. According to the Chinese way of thinking it is not the shortest route that leads to the destination but the more difficult path. Therefore the Chinese can handle complex situations without a lot of stress neither they let push themselves through time. The key for the Chinese is to build up strong, reliable, lasting relationships. Before any decision is met there must be gained a certain amount of trust. Obviously this takes longer to finish a business deal. They do not like to rush into things [SKR]. Once you build up the trust and a strong relationship you can rely on it. This culture is marked by loyalty and respect. If you are willing to maintain this relationship you can trust your entire life on Guanxi. Comparison between China and Germany As you can see there are a few differences between Germany and China. In contrast to China the power is decentralised. The German culture is marked by a low power distance and the subordinates expect to be consulted as well as they expect to offer their ideas to the managers. Flashing back to my work experience I can say that I often had to take initiative. Often people are confronted with the adage: â€Å"think by yourself†. The other difference is that the management and subordinates respect each other and treat one another as equals. Usually it is as described, but there are of course exceptions. In most cases, however, I have had the experience that I had a good relationship to my boss. Compared to China, Germany has a highly individualistic society. Personal responsibility, independence, self-determination and I-experience are highly valued in Germany. A prolonged stay abroad is much respected. It shows that you can independently fulfil tasks. Companies wish to have workers with international experience due to growing globalization. That individualism counts, can also be seen in the fact that you put your name first when writing an address. This is totally different to China where you put the country at first as I have already mentioned. According to Hofstede Germany and China have the same MAS index. Mostly it is the men who hold the most of the power. I have noticed women get more and more acceptance in the man dominated business world. For example we now have a woman (Angelika Merkel) as chancellor and not a man. I can see more and more woman taking part in higher positions. Therefore I would rate Germany at 55 because there is no doubt about the increasing acceptance of women. Another example shows that a women’s quota should be introduced in Germany, which includes that at least 10% of women should sit in the top management. Furthermore Germany is a country full of bureaucracy. We have laws for almost everything, insurance companies are supposed to protect us and the institutions should regulate everything imaginable. We want to have everything controlled in order to control the future. Therefore we make contracts and then we act accordingly. This is totally different to the Chinese Culture where people like to keep the possibility to change things afterwards. The highest difference between China and Germany is the LTO index. Unlike China, Germany is more short-term oriented. Managers in Germany try to make high profits in no time. We put  truth and directness before diplomacy. Furthermore I have noticed that German employers are impatient because they want to get fast results. Criticism Unfortunately, I could not check if I would spread as much points as Hofstede because there was too less time to make an intensive investigation. However, I found out through discussions and research that Hofstede was pretty accurate with his assumptions. Furthermore, I want to mention a couple of criticisms of his study. The main point is listed by critics that the drawn samples were not representative. So in the original study(1967-1972 ) information were used from a global survey made by IBM. Thus, it is uncertain whether the system actually worked out measures of national cultures or rather differences in corporate culture between the countries. Furthermore, Hofstede’s approach ignores differences within a nation. The model treats a nation as a homogeneous state of individuals who all share the same value system. This is in most cases incorrect. In addition, criticism of the validity of the items was practiced [4]. Hofstede cites no theoretical justification for the selection of items. House and other people criticizes in particular the failure to distinguish between values ​​and behavior. This is problematic because negative values ​​and behavior are linked. Source Material: [TIP] Geert Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviours, Institutions and Organisations across Nations (Place: Corwin Press, 2001). http://www.tiplady.org.uk/pdfs/LEA502-5-culturalissues.pdf [GER] The Hofstede Centre: http://geert-hofstede.com/china.html [SKR] Hofstede comparison of Germany and China: https://www.google.de/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&ved=0CDgQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbuinternationalmanagement.wikispaces.com%2Ffile%2Fview%2FHofstede%2Bcomparison%2Bof%2BGermany%2Band%2BChina.doc&ei=vDRYUb6mKo7EswaMoICQAg&usg=AFQjCNHgjNwXhFqhxu015my2P3qIqIftMQ&sig2=MGY08eJFzKV1E–Q6iME-w&bvm=bv.44442042,d.Yms [GHW] Geert Hofstede http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Hofstede [BUC] Der China Knigge ; Yu-Chien Kuan, Petra Hà ¤ring-Kuan ; September 2006 ISBN: 978-3-596-16684-8 Persons I have talked to: David King (Banker / Chinese) David Zhang (Student / Chinese) Primel (Chinese Girl who studies German) Kim Lao (Chinese Business Man / employed by an American company) Lio (Student / Chinese)

Focus groups

â€Å"MARKETING RESEARCH †IntroductionBefore traveling farther we must understand definition of Marketing. American Marketing Association defines selling as â€Å"the systematic assemblage, entering and analyzing of informations about jobs associating to the selling of goods and services† . There are many research techniques that can be used for marketing intent, among that we are traveling to discourse about Focus groupFocus GroupA focal point group is a particular type of group in footings of intent, size, composing and process. A intent of focal point group is to listen and garner information. It is a manner to better understand how people think or feel about an issue, merchandises and services. Participants are selected because they have certain focal point group provide qualitative informations features that relate to the subject of focal point group. A focal point group survey is carefully planned series of treatment designed to obtain a perceptual experience on a defined country of involvement in a permissive, nonthreatening environment. Each group is created by six or eight people by skilled interviewer. The treatment are relaxed and frequently participant enjoy sharing their thoughts and perceptual experience. Group member influences each other by reacting to thoughts and remarks of others.A. FeaturesFollowing are the chief features of Focus groups.1. Focus groups involves peoples: –Focus group typically composed of five to ten peoples, but the size can run from every bit few as four to every bit many as 12. The group must be little plenty for everyone to hold an chance to portion penetrations and yet big plenty to diverseness of perceptual experience. When the group exceeds a twelve participants there is a inclination for the group to break up. Participants want to speak but unable to speak because there is merely non a sufficient intermission in the conversation. In this state of affairs participants portion by whispering to the people next to them. This is signal that group is large. Small group of four or five participants afford more chance.2. Peoples possess the certain featuresFocus groups are composed of participants who are similar to each other in a manner that is of import to researcher. The nature of this homogeneousness is determine by the intent of survey. This similarity is footing for enlisting and participants are typically informed of this common factor at the beginning of treatment. This homogeneousness can be loosely or narrowly defined, for illustration suppose an grownup community instruction wanted to cognize more about how to make people who have n't participated in their plan. In this instance homogeneousness could be loosely define as grownups who live in the community who have non yet attend community instruction session. Group member can be vary by age, gender, business, and involvement, but member have the commonalty of being grownups, community members and non members.3. Focus groups provide a qualitative information: –The end of focal point group is to roll up informations that are involvement to the research worker typically to happen the scope of options of people across several groups. This research compares and contrasted informations collected from at least three focal point groups. This differs from other group interactions in which the end is to come to some decision at the terminal of a treatment – range consensus, supply recommendations or do determinations among options. The focal point groups present a natural environment than that of an person because participants are act uponing and influenced by others merely as they are i n life. The research worker serves several maps in the focal point group, moderator, hearer, observer and finally analyst utilizing an inductive procedure.4. Focus groups have a focussed treatment: –The inquiries in focal point group are carefully predetermined. The inquiries are phrased and sequence so they are easy to understand and logical to the participants. Most are unfastened ended inquiries. These inquiries appear self-generated but are develop through considerable contemplation and input. The set of inquiries called oppugning path or interview usher is so arranged in natural and logical sequence. Question near the beginning of the groups are more general. As the groups continues the inquiries becomes more specific and more focussed. The beginning inquiries help acquire people speaking and believing about the subject. Questions near the terminal of group typically yield the most utile information. There is no force per unit area by moderator to hold the group reach co nsensus. Alternatively attending is placed on understanding the feeling, the remark, and through procedure of participants as they discussed the issues.B. Uses of Focus groupFollowing are the utilizations of focal point groups research techniques. 1. Helps in determination devising 2. Helps for merchandise development 3. This information can be used for research intent 4. They are of import for treatment intent.When to utilize focal point group1. To prove new construct 2. To measure advertising/ copy 3. To measure publicity 4. To developed questionnaire 5. To bring forth thoughts or support brainstorming 6. To place product/services 7. To measure merchandise serviceabilityC. Advantages: –1. Malleability 2. Provides observation of existent consumer in an synergistic scene. 3. Involves fewer participants compared to quantitative methods. 4. Can be arranged on short notice and at a lower cost. 5. Statistical analysis is unneeded.D. Disadvantages: –1. Focus group consequences are non quantitative 2. Sample size is little ; consequence are non projectable 3. Participants do non stand for the mark market 4. Subject are way of the treatment are moderator dependant 5. Careful reading of the information is important.E. How to carry on focal point groupA short overview of the literature provides some suggestion for carry oning focal point groups. The figure of groups you should carry on depends on your research inquiry and on the figure of different population subgroups required ( morgan1988, p.42 ) .it is by and large suggested that it is more appropriate to work with unusual alternatively of groups of friends or people who know each other really good, because the degree of ( 1988, p.48 ) .it is besides suggested that you should get down with the group every bit heterogenous as possible and so run a 2nd set if groups that are more homogenous ( 1988, p.73 ) .in each instance it is necessary to get down the group with some sort of warming up.These two gap of focal point groups are really typical and helpful:Before we begin our treatment, it will be helpful for us to acquire acquainted with one another. Let ‘s get down with some introductory remarks about ourselves. Ten, why do n't you get down and we ‘ll travel around the tabular array and give our names and small about what we do for life? Today we ‘re traveling to discourse an issue that affects you. Before we get into treatment, allow me do few petition of you. First, you should cognize that we are tape entering the session so that I can mention back to treatment when I write my study. If anyone is uncomfortable with being recorded please say so and, of class you are free to go forth. Make talk up and Lashkar-e-Taibas try to hold merely one individual speak at a clip. I will pay traffic bull and seek to guarantee that everyone gets turn. Finally, delight state precisely what you think, do n't worry about what I think what our neighbour thinks. We are here to interchange sentiment and have fun while we do it. Why do n't we get down by presenting ourselves?Postal QuestionnaireQuestionnaire is a list of written inquiries, there are two types of questionnaire, foremost were respondent could inquire to finish the inquiry with research worker non present these types of questionnaire is called as postal questionnaire. And secondly respondent could inquire to finish inquiry with research nowadays is called as structured interview ( Sociological Research Skills ) .Questionnaires are restricted two types:Near ended: in this type research worker provides a list of suited response ( Sociological Research Skills ) . Open ended: in this type research worker non supply any suited list of response to the response dent.respondent asked to compose the reply in their ain manner ( Sociological Research Skills ) . For my undertaking I am utilizing postal questionnaire because I am a pupil and I am non able to travel each and every topographic points of Singapore. One of the most dependable methods of research is postal questionnaire because it ‘s really easy for research worker to standardise and analyse the inquiries. Each respondent answered precisely same inquiry. And I am utilizing stopping point ended inquirer in this.AppendixQuestionnaireQ.1a. Among all new theoretical accounts of auto which theoretical account you purchased?Answer: – — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —  œQ.1b. When?Answer Day: – _____ , Month: – _______ , Year: – ________Q.2 What primary factors will you see foremost while buying a auto?Answer ( A ) Average ( B ) Speed ( C ) Maintenance ( D ) ComfortQ.3 By what beginning you come to cognize about this auto?Answer ( A ) Internet ( B ) Television( C ) Magazine ( D ) Motor Show Exhibition ( E ) OtherIf other please advert your beginning below: – †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Q.4 How much clip will you pass for determination of buying a new auto?Answer ( A ) Less than two hebdomads ( B ) 2 hebdomads to 4 hebdomads ( C ) 4 hebdomads to 6 hebdomads ( D ) More than 6 hebdomadsQ.5 Time taken by trader from puting order to bringing of order?Answer ( A ) Less than 3 hebdomads ( B ) Three hebdomads to one month ( C ) One month to three months ( D ) More than three monthsQ.6 Among all this companies which companies auto will you prefer?Answer ( A ) Audi ( B ) Lancer ( C ) Mercedes ( D ) SonataQ.7 Excluding any sedimentation how was your vehicle chiefly paid for?Answer ( A ) Loan ( B ) Cash ( C ) Leasing ( D ) OtherQ.8 After subscribing a contract how many yearss did it takes for your vehicle to be delivered?Answer ______________ DaysQ.9 Please place the chief alternate vehicle that you considered?Answer†¦ à ¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ .Q.10 How would you rate your overall buying experience at the franchise?Answer ( A ) Poor ( B ) Met outlook ( C ) Satisfactory ( D ) ExcellentQ.11 Did you receive any benefits for taking an alternate specification to ypur preferable pick?Answer ( A ) No ( B ) Yes If yes please reference below †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ . †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ .Q.12 How did you corroborate your concluding order with trader?Answer ( A ) Phone ( B ) Fax ( C ) Personally ( D ) OtherQ.13 Is this auto is satisfactory to your demands?Answer ( A ) Yes ( B ) No Reason: – †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ .. †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦Q. 14 Do you believe buying auto is really hard process?Answer ( A ) Yes ( B ) NoQ. 15 How satisfied are you with the clip taken to finish the full sale procedure at your franchise?Answer ( A ) Poor ( B ) Average ( C ) Satisfactory ( D ) OutstandingDecision: –†¢ This study inside informations the consequences of a study of new auto purchasers which aimed to understand their purchasing demands and behavior in relation to build-to-order and short bringing lead times. It was portion of a research programme that examined the nature of demand for a Car †¢ Brochures, trader gross revenues staff, auto magazines and friends/relatives were the most common beginnings of new auto information beginnings used. The cyberspace was used by merely under one fifth, and peculiar by those aged 25 to 35 old ages. †¢ Colour or pigment type was the most popular type of specification alteration, and 46 % of those who compromised said they received some signifier of benefit from the trader for making so – preponderantly a price reduction on their new autos, followed by specification ascent. There big differences across the trade names in the benefits offered. †¢ The most common twenty-four hours for doing an order was Saturday, and the most common twenty-four hours for roll uping the new auto was Friday. Most orders and aggregations were made in the afternoon, though about 20 % said they collected their autos in the eventide †¢ On norm, new auto purchasers contacted or visited their trader three times when buying their auto †¢ Key themes that emerged from the consequences included the differences in attitudes and behavior of younger auto purchasers, and differences between volume and specialist purchasers. †¢ Younger auto purchasers are much more impatient than older purchasers and more predisposed to altering their behavior to guarantee they are ‘instantly gratified ‘ . †¢ Specialist purchasers are prepared to wait longer for their autos, with the suggestion that they make a clear nexus between quality and clip – that is, a premium auto by its nature will take longer to do and present. While technically there should be small difference in fabrication and bringing clip for both volume and specializer autos, it can be argued that the current selling and gross revenues system feats and reinforces this out-of-date belief. †¢ Overall, the research suggests that order to bringing clip affairs to new auto purchasers, that consumers expectation are high in footings of a short lead clip.MentionFocus Group As Qualitative Research David L. Morgan Focus Groups Theory and Practice David W. Stewart, Denis W. Rook The Focus Group Research Handbook Holly Edmunds

Using different teaching strategies to improve the performance of Assignment

Using different teaching strategies to improve the performance of nursing students with different learning styles - Assignment Example Over the past years, the utility derived from matching the learning styles to the appropriate teaching methods has widely been discussed (Bostrà ¶m, 2013). It is believed that in a case where the students are presented with difficult information and new courses, a great change is observed when the individual’s learning style is correctly matched to the teaching strategy (Aina-Popoola, 2014; Luo et.al, 2014). This literature review seeks to establish the different student’s learning styles, the specific challenges facing the facilitators in nursing education as well as the creative teaching strategies that can be integrated in nursing teaching to improve on the learning efficiency. It is hypothesized that the different learning styles and teaching strategies have an effect on nursing student learning. The following literature review from the last five years therefore seeks to demonstrate and support this hypothesis. In a study by Amina and Houaida (2012) that sought to identify the learning styles preferred by the nursing students in Nursing and Technical Institute of Alexandria, 288 nursing students were involved in the study. 169 of the students were from the faculty of nursing while 119 were from the technical nursing institution. Both the comparative and the descriptive research study designs were used in the study. From this study, it was evident that the most prominent learning style preferred by the nursing students in Egypt was kinesthetic style. Further, statistical analysis of the data collected in the study revealed a significant difference between age and the score of the particular nursing courses. It is from these findings that the researcher concluded that there exist a number of learning styles preferred by the nursing students of which can be adequately exploited by the nursing educators in coming up with appropriate techniques and

Diversity of World Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Diversity of World Music - Essay Example These are music from Indonesia, Jazanese Gamelan music and ethiojazz. Music has been used by many communities to communicate. Moreover, music has exhibited the obvious influences of other cultures by the mix in instruments or words in the songs. An example is the gamelan music which is an original and traditional Indonesian music. The instruments and the music flow however display heavy influence of Hinduism and Buddhism cultures (Born, 168). In addition, the gamelan uses an instrument called rebab which is an Islamic instrument. This shows the Indonesia people trying to interact with the Hindu, Buddhism and Islam culture. The history of the gamelan music can be traced to the period where hindu-budhist tradition dominated Indonesia. On fact in Indonesia culture Hindu culture has heavily influenced many art works. The gamelan is often considered Javanese by outsiders who relate it more to the java culture based on the instruments and music flow. This is so In that java music exhibits a wider diversity since it was an island that was transverse by many differentcultures. Thus, its music comprises of old, traditional, contemporary and unique styles which looks and feels different from the normal Indonesian music. This is a cross cultural interaction since Indonesians and the Hindus were living together at one point they had to interact and what better way than use of music. This is the music of the Ethiopians and it is a mix of Ethiopian music and jazz music hence the name ethiojazz which basically means Ethiopian jazz. This name has been used distinctively to show that there is other jazz music but this is specifically Ethiopian. This is a cross cultural communication to the world that Ethiopia has their own jazz music apart from the jazz they know. Ethiojazz has been made widely afamous by one Mulatu Astatke. Ethiojazz is generally a mix of traditional Ethiopian music blended together with soul music, Latin rhythms and afro-funk music (Born,

Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 16

Business - Essay Example There are many things wrong with the IT department throughout the company. Because, the company acquired many other companies during the 1990s, the company lost touch with the IT department. Because, prior too now the company lacked a Chief Information Officer (CIO) the company has had a haphazard IT department. The current position of the IT department is the possible cause of lost revenue the company has been faced with. Only after Horizon 2000 was implemented was it discovered that it is almost impossible for someone in Detroit, Michigan to adequately receive information from someone working for the company in Taiwan. If the company cannot adequately, and efficiently share information throughout the company, the company will begin to lose revenue. The company loses revenue through the loss of accounts. The company loses accounts, because orders are being shipped untimely. Only when the company begins to implement a new Information Technology department will the company began to prosper again. The competitors have an advantage over the company, because the competitors have their IT departments organized. The competitors do not necessarily have more accounts than MDCM; but the competitors do have an advantage over the company; because, these companies are able to share information on a timely basis. Because, the competitors can share information on a timely basis, the competitors are able to fill customers’ orders in a timely manner. If MDCM were able to fill customer orders in a timely manner, MDCM may have an advantage over the competitors. When MDCM lost those four counts within 12 months, the company not only lost revenue, but the company lost these accounts competitors. When Max McMullen as Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of MDCM in 2000 he discovered some of the sales staff were competing against each other for the same account, MDCM, Inc. Information technology strategy synchronization, (4). This is why him McMullen decided to implement Horizon

Paraphrasing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Paraphrasing - Essay Example In the 14th-century, learning was characterized by education reforms which were accredited to Petrarch. For instance, learning was based on classical sources, linear perspective and other practices such as developing a natural touch to painting. â€Å"The Renaissance,† presented substantial changes in artistic and education in Italy. It led to the transformation of the culture of northern Italy. The changes can be traced back from the late fourteenth to the early sixteenth centuries. Some changes in culture and artistic aspects also influence the rest of Europe a great deal. The term â€Å"re-birth† has often been used literally to mean that the cultural accomplishment of antiquity which had been celebrated before was no longer appreciated, and therefore, it needed to be â€Å"re-born†. However, there has been a significant difference between the ancient texts written during the first one thousand years following the fragmentation of Rome and texts written during the fourteenth and ï ¬ fteenth centuries. Major works such as Virgil, Ovid, and Cicero were majorly studied before new works were discovered such as those written by Livy, Tacitus, and Lucretius. The new discoveries complemented and expanded the ancient Greek literature. There was increased contact of the western Europeans with the Islam from the Arabic translation of original Greek via Latin translations. Through such contact, Europeans acquired a lot of Greek’s philosophical and scientific works. However, only a limited number of Europeans were able to read classical Greek. This number increased as many Greek-speaking people fled to Italy following pressure from the Mongols and the Ottoman Turks. Consequently, they spread their knowledge. This new culture become highly commercialized ad materialistic with artifacts of the ancient Rome being used as pawns in the unlimited power games. During renaissance, the papacy was not left behind in the

Teaching IT Ethics in Arabic Countries Approaches and Attitudes Research Paper

Teaching IT Ethics in Arabic Countries Approaches and Attitudes - Research Paper Example Thus maintaining ethical codes of conduct for the uses of computers or information systems has become a necessary aspect in every institutional organization. This study focuses on the ethical measures reflected in the information technology within organizations in the Arab countries particularly highlighting the region of Saudi Arabia. It considers certain literature reviews as well as focused on some of the companies to unlearn the present scenario of ethical practices in information technology uses, and hence conducted a detailed analysis on the ethical structure of information systems in Saudi Arabian organizations. Keywords: Computers, Information technology, Ethics, Business organizations List of Abbreviations: IT: Information Technology NCS: National Computer Systems Introduction:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the current global scenario, information technology can be found to have advanced to a great extent. Companies require performing under different rules and policies (Northcu tt, 2004, p.4). With greater advancements, the use of computers and the IT systems have become very uncomplicated and easy for the users to exchange information. However, attitudes towards the ethical issues have been found to alter amongst the users in the modern organizations and several unethical practices are being prevalent. Often acquaintances may create circumstances where a person tends to get influenced to follow unethical practices. IT proficient organizational members are capable of controlling information systems and hence can manipulate the system procedures. To put a control on such issues, several institutions in developed countries are endorsing ethical codes that the professionals are required to follow. The absence of ethical codes in computers and IT reflects the threats of the users getting involved in â€Å"privacy and software piracy† (Information Resources Management Association, 1994, p.428). The ethical codes in computers and information technology ad minister and control the use of computers, networks and information systems. The ethical issues that generally arise in this respect include unlawful use of computers, theft in computer software, hardware or other process systems, privacy issues as well as use of any material that may be unacceptable in the organizational culture. Thus, organizations need to focus on the codes of ethics to control these measures (Shelly, Cashman, Gunter & Gunter, 2007, p.484). The study has taken into consideration certain literature reviews and a few companies in the region of Saudi Arabia have been taken as case studies reflecting the ethical practices in business organizations on the use of computers and information technology.   Research Framework:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To study the ethical codes maintained in organizations in Saudi Arabia in the context of the use of computers and IT, this report focuses on certain theoretical study work based on the institutional theories on IT and organiz ational learning to provide with a fundamental understanding on the ethical issues related to information systems. Moreover, the research focuses on some of the selected organizations from Saudi Arabia to reflect on the current scenario of ethical practices in Saudi Arabia. The use of IT has developed largely in a short period of time spreading across the globe in different regions providing high quality services to its users. The broadening of the information syste

Effects on the Only Child in a Blended Family and How to Build a Term Paper

Effects on the Only Child in a Blended Family and How to Build a Healthy Bond - Term Paper Example The personality characteristics of an only child are not perceived too positively by people generally. It is pre-supposed that they are children who are mostly spoiled brats. In China, one child is encouraged to bring down population growth. These little ones are called little emperors and are considered to be spoilt brats world over. According to Falbo, research on work in this area indicates otherwise. According to research conducted by him an only child tends to be more achieving, motivated and successful. However in a blended family and in social circuits the problems that crop up are significantly different. (Meyer) First of all, lets throw some insight into the concept of a blended family. A blended family is one in which there is a child included from the previous relationship in the family that was created by a new marriage. In other words only one child from the previous relationship can construe a blended family. If one is to put forth an honest account then humans have a n atural inclination that indices them to favor their own children. These children enjoy the bonus by virtue of conception. The blended family presents one with a very complex and difficult challenge to deal with. It is the challenge to honor, take care of and protect the only child in the blended family. It is to treat them as equals without letting the children of the spouse gets effected. There are a lot of ways in which a healthy bond can be developed in a blended family. A major disadvantage of favoring one’s own child while against a step child is the kind of adverse impacts such favoritism has on the psychology of the step child. It ends up bringing down the self esteem of the step child. Children are too naive to be able to understand the natural and dynamic bonding of the child with his biological parent. They will not be able to rationalize any differential treatment in this regard. They would want to be treated with just as much love, affection and care. They would w ant to be respected henceforth as well. Anything less would not go down well with them and they will feel less important and less loved. So in a blended family, parents have to be cautious in nurturing a healthy bond with both the step child as well as the only child. While it’s only fair, to have that special bond with one’s own child, the parent must figure out ways to develop his/her bond with the step child. This can be easy because no two people are the same. Similarly no two children are alike too. If one wants to, they can find ways to make both children special in their own rights. Once when enters into a marriage with someone who already has a child, there is given understanding that one will the child as if it was his/her own. If the child is not given equal treatment as the stepparent’s child, it will end up having a lasting impact on the child’s ability to gel well with other people. He is expected to suffer from an identity crisis, will strug gle developing a healthy self identity and would not be able to lead a life which is free of all kinds of emotional clutter. (Blended famiy focus) If one’s bias towards their only child, then this can jeopardize the marriage to and can have a severe impact on one’s relationship with the spouse and ultimately put the marriage on the rocks. No spouse would want to live under the belief that the care of their child has been

Retention Mangement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Retention Mangement - Essay Example It also evaluates the involvement the person can put together in the direction of organizational accomplishments. The present article considers the turnover, its causes and its complete analysis. In the present scenario where the competition is on its climax, to procure good working hands and individuals with sound knowledge, skills and temperament is a tough task. Further tougher is to retain the skilled hands, those who are well acclimatized and adjusted to the organizational norms, culture and with co-workers (Smith; Managing staff turnover and retention). It is imperative to keep the employees motivated and they should have encouraging self-esteem with their work appropriately rewarded. The most challenging tasks which organizations in present epoch are observing encompass retention of skilled and competitive employees. In order to appreciate superior staffing, lesser expenditure enhanced drive and an improved awareness and understanding, retention of able and talented employees is necessary. Staff turnover is expected and could be advantageous, but excessive is expensive in requisites of staffing and training assets. Turnover varies with the economic cycles; during the time of recession it falls causing masquerade the fundamental tribulations like distressed staff. Therefore, it is essential to manage issues related to turnover. It is desired for enhanced management of employees in an organization and working out approaches and procedures to retain staff. Turnover can be classified in three ways based on the nature of problems: 2. Employee’s way- due to work atmosphere, dissatisfaction, low salary, lack of recognition, too demanding or involving work, not able to cope the competitive stress. This could be addressed with 5 P’s as- Poor equation between job and the individual, Poor fit in the culture of the organization, Poor coalition between

Monarch Butterfly Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Monarch Butterfly - Research Paper Example Butterflies and moths belong to the order, Lepidoptera (Capinera, 628). The special characteristics of this order are the presence of a â€Å"complete, holometabolous life cycle, with separate egg, larva, pupa, and adult stages† (Capinera, 631). And this is why butterflies are classified under this order. A Monarch butterfly has also a similar wing span which comes to â€Å"3.5 to 4 inches† (Garber, 76). Another common feature of the members of Lepidoptera order is that all of them have â€Å"four wings and also scales covering at leats some body parts (Capinera, 631). In Monarch butterflies, the scales are seen â€Å"as a patch near the central veins of the hindwings† (Capinera, 631). There are two subspecies in Monarch butterfly (Oberhauser and Solensky, 1). The species, Danaus plexippus plexippus, is found in â€Å"Southern Canada, the USA, Mexico, most Caribbean Islands, Central America and northern South America† (Oberhauser and Solensky, 1). The sec ond subspecies, Danaus plexippus erippus is seen in â€Å"Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Eastern Brazil† (Oberhauser and Solensky, 1). Monarch butterflies are cold-blooded insects (Learner.org). So they are comfortable in cool climates as in such an atmosphere, they do not need to spend much energy (Learner.org). It can be seen that â€Å"the body of the caterpillar will be covered with nine brown rings aside from black head and it features three pairs of ‘true’ legs with claws attached and five pairs of prolegs that extend backwards† (Monarch-Butterfly.com). To differentiate a female monarch butterfly from a male, one has to look for a simple identification mark -â€Å"the male monarchs have a black spot on each of the hind wings over a vein. The female monarch butterfly does not have this spot† (Monarch-Butterfly.com). In one year, four generations of monarch butterflies complete their life cycle (Monarch-Butterfly.com). Th e life cycle of a monarch butterfly on the other hand includes four stages, namely, the egg, the larvae, the pupa and the butterfly (Monarch-Butterfly.com). The annual life cycle of this majestic insect can be considered to begin in the months of February and March when they mate (Monarch-Butterfly.com). After mating, the butterflies migrate to the Northern and Eastern parts of North America and lay their eggs there in the months of March and April (Monarch-Butterfly.com). It is on the milkweed plant that the Monarch butterflies lay their white eggs (Monarch-Butterfly.com). The eggs will be seen on the undersides of milkweed leaves, usually near the top of the plant. Each female butterfly lay â€Å"several hundred eggs† and the eggs hatch in four days (Monarch-Butterfly.com). There are many invertebrate predators that feed on Monarch eggs and larvae like, red velvet spider mite (Oberhauser and Solensky, 6). The caterpillar is herbivore and feeds only on milkweed leaves for tw o weeks and then attach to a small stem or a leaf of the plant and starts metamorphosing into the pupa stage (Monarch-Butterfly.com). Because of the insistence of the caterpillars on eating only the milkweeds, Monarch butterflies gained another name, the â€Å"milkweed butterfly† (Monarch-Butterfly.com). The caterpillars are only â€Å"about 0.1 inches long† weighing 0.55 grams (Monarch-Butterfly.com). Caterpillars have alternating bands of yellow, white, and black, on their body with a black stripe between pairs of

Pestel Analysis Essay Example for Free

Pestel Analysis Essay Australia is the 15th richest nation in per capita terms and is the 6th oldest continuously functioning democracy in the world. Australia has the 14th biggest overall economy in the world and the 9th biggest economy. Australia’s economy is open and innovative. Over the past decade solid productivity gains have been accompanied by low inflation and interest rates. Also Australia has low barriers to trade and investment .Australia foreign and trade policies promote the security and long term prosperity of Australia in a global context. Australia’s economy is highly susceptible to the impact of climate change. In 2008 the Australian Government committed to create an organization called â€Å"Infrastructure Australia† to provide a new national approach to planning ,implementing and funding the nations future. Being a safe, stable and prosperous country Australia is an increasingly attractive hub for international and regional business and business operations. Political environment In Australia, it is a liberal-capitalistic democracy. The state keeps interfering substantially in the economy through the use of various roles; for instance the parliament might decide to set up importation taxes aimed to protect the national economy, or it might create environmental protection laws aimed to protect the natural heritage of the country. This affects international business because when taxes keep varying and increasing especially there will be an impact on the economy which in turn will affect the exchange rates and currency rate. According to surveys Australias economy continued to gather pace in March as world demand for commodities boosted the nations coffers. However due to recent uncertainty from the European debt crisis could lower expectations of economic growth in the future.

Exploratory Study of Kopitiam Business

Exploratory Study of Kopitiam Business A new breed of kopitiam (a coffee shop in local Chinese dialects) has gained popularity in Malaysia during the past few years. In fact, there are no less than a hundred different brands of kopitiam which can be found everywhere in Malaysia with little or no differentiation. In such saturated market, lowering the prices has become common strategy to attract customers, consequently, kopitiam business has been caught up in price wars and competing under the shrinking profit margin. Thus, it leads the business with nothing but bloody red oceans. However, there are limited studies in business strategies in kopitiam businesses. Therefore, this paper aims to bridge the gap by discusses a conceptual strategy approach, particularly, Blue-ocean strategy (BOS) in kopitiam businesses. Keywords: Kopitiam, Differentiation, Red Oceans, Blue-ocean strategy. 1.0 Introduction A new breed of kopitiam (a coffee shop in local Chinese dialects) has gained popularity in Malaysia during the past few years. However, the literature review suggests limited research attempts have been made in kopitiams business strategies. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to bridge the gap and it presented in four parts. The first part begins by reviewing the history of kopitiam in Malaysia. Following this, the second section reviews the new breed of kopitiam business in Malaysia. Lastly, the last two parts discusses the conceptual approach, Blue-ocean strategy in kopitiam and its untapped market respectively. 2.0 The History of Kopitiam 2.1 The Migration In nineteenth and twentieth century, British Imperialism had brought in diverse of people, mainly from China, India and Malay Archipelago. According to Kaur (2004), the growing economic opportunities in the region such as mineral and agricultural expansion were the pull factors to Southeast Asia during that time. In the colonial era of Malaya (before independent), British had introduced the practice of segregating economic activity along with racial lines such as Chinese migrant workers to work in the tin mines, Indian migrant workers to work in the rubber plantations and Malay Archipelago to work in the agriculture fields (Arif Abubakar, 2005). 2.2 The Hainanese Factor In 1900s, the main Chinese dialects groups in Malaya are Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew and Hainanese. According to Lai (2010) among the Chinese dialect groups, Hainanese were the late comers and the minority of migrant group. Due to the scarcity of job during that time, the other dialect groups would take any job offered or opportunity available. They became rubber tappers, seamen, cooks and just name to it a few. Most of them worked for the Europeans. In late of 1930s, Hainanese, individually or partnership, offers their personal skills such as culinary, service, housekeeping, and management skills which they learned from European households. They started to set up new concept of kopitiam (meaning coffee shop in local Chinese dialects) and involved in food and beverage related industries like coffee processing and food catering during that time. The growth fastiqium period for Hainanese distinct kopitiam were in the late 1920s to 1950s. Hainanese coffee merchants and kopitiam operators had developed their special method to roast the coffee beans and brewed the coffee (Lai, 2010). Some of them have their secret/special recipes which served as the key attractions to retain customers. In 1960s, the success of the kopitiam business had led the newcomers from other dialect groups to venture into this business. Subsequently, competition became more intense. 2.3 The Evolutions of Kopitiam Conventional Kopitiam, the basic formula was an outlet and simple menus. They served local coffee, toasted bread with margarine and kaya (a type of jam made of coconuts and eggs), half-boiled eggs and some traditional pastries. Prices were relatively cheap with a cup of coffee and other food charged which everyone could afford. In the past, the kopitiam sole proprietor dressed his white sweatshirt and stripped pajama pants making coffee. The kopitiam was a place as social centre where men could indulge eating, meeting, drinking and chatting on anything that came to mind, light or seriously in what had become known as coffee shop talk (Lai, 2010). Normally, it would be located in strategic location of the main street, village or neighborhood. According to Lai (2010), as populations grew rapidly, some of the kopitiam expanded into modest-sized eating shops in the more strategic location nearer to the towns, village, neighborhood or others. Proprietors sell both drinks and foods or solely drinks and rented out stall space to other food operators. It was the place that customers enjoyed their breakfast, lunch and dinner. Their target customers were industrial personnel, laborers, and residents. This kind of kopitiam set up remains until today. In the late twentieth century, new breed of kopitiam chains which trade on both modernized and nostalgia approach, started to emerge. The outlets are designed with old posters feature, vintage antiques and furniture to evoke a 1960s atmosphere (Euromonitor International, 2010). In the past few years, the popularity of new breed of kopitiam has begun in Malaysia. This brand new kopitiam emphasize eating experiences by offering value-added services like free Wi-Fi access, air-conditional environment and offered innovative breakfast and lunch set-meals and more choices on the menu to fulfill every level of consumers (Euromonitor International, 2009). To remain competitive, aggressive marketing strategies and management systems are implemented. They innovate and improve their kitchens technology for preparing foods and beverages (Lai, 2010). As such, kopitiam has gained the favour of young consumers to hang out at these outlets. 3.0 An Overview of New Breed Kopitiam in Malaysia Local food beverages (FB) face some challenges which are beyond the issue of rising cost of raw materials and shortage of workers but the scene with intense competition among the food service operators. This was mainly due to the low entry barriers and switching costs of buyers/suppliers. According to Selamat et. al. (2003), the entire Malaysia food industries make up from the total of 172,252 units of food service entities which consist of food stalls/kiosk and restaurant. In the new concept of kopitiam alone, there are more than 100 brands of new concept kopitiam in the market today. Statistically, the percentage of units/outlets growth in both independent and chained kopitiam accounted for 9.1 percent and 16.1 percent in 2008 respectively (Euromonitor International, 2009). Generally, the new breed of kopitiam entering the market by integrating the old fashioned of traditional kopitiam in a more trendy, hygenic, and air-conditioned environment. No doubt that the movement of these kopitiam has successfully created a new wave of eating experiences in Malaysia. However, there is little or no differentiation against one another in terms of (1) product offerings (i.e., coffee, bread toast, and other local authentic foods) are nearly the same from one outlet to another regardless of the brand; (2) targeting the same group of consumers, for example, professionals, managers, executives, and business owners; (3) physical environment such as decoration was found to be the same among these outlets. Today, marketing tasks has become complicated and more challenging than ever. Businesses today are competing in fragmentation, saturation, and storm of novelty that exist every day in the market. In fact, when the industry become more intense, businesses will continuously increase their market share by identifying and creating niche market (Kotler Tiras De Bes, 2003); strive to retain and develop existing customers (Kim Mauborgne, 2005) which would result in finer segmentation. Thus, it ends-up creating too-small target market. Besides, the increase of commoditization of products and services leads consumer hardly to differentiate their product offerings. As a solution, reducing prices has become the common competitive strategy for kopitiam businesses as competition intensifies. According to Euromonitor International (2009) found that prices of offering items in cafes/bars (including kopitiam) will likely drop gradually. Thus, promotions such as value set breakfast and lunch with lower price can be easily found in these outlets. Commonly, we found that lowering the prices with the purpose to beat competitors, but, it is often not a wise strategy in business like kopitiam as every player can do the exactly same thing. Trout Rivkin (2000) illustrated that price is always the enemy of differentiation. Consequently, the above mentioned scenario will lead the business with nothing but a bloody red ocean. Red oceans stand for the industries that are around today. In the red ocean, the rules of the game are known as it had been around for ages. Thus, businesses tend to compete to get a bigger chunk of the pie. When this happens, the market space becomes smaller, resulting to a drain in profit and growth. As this prolongs, the stiff rivalry among the companies would turn to be a bloody red ocean (Kim Mauborgne, 2005). 4.0 Swimming towards Blue Oceans Kotler Tiras De Bes (2003) described the current market is not the same as compare to 1960s and 1970s. Typically, product is designed to fulfill consumer needs; however, consumer needs are hypersatisfied today. Kim and Mauborgne (2005) pointed that business strategies and management of the 20th century are becoming extinct as the business evolves in an industry that is changing to be a shade of red, the management has to be on its feet to think on how to make it ocean blue. Generally, blue oceans denote the new market space, new creation, and high probability for growth. Most of the blue oceans created within known markets but there are a few that are completely new industries rivalry among companies are not predominant in the blue ocean as there are no known rules to follow. Indeed, Kim Mauborgne (2005) describes the future of a company depends on how the management can create and use this new strategy. Besides, both authors indicate that 86 percent of launched business (improvement within an existing red-ocean market) which accounted 62 percent of total revenue and only 39 percent of total margins. On the other hand, the remaining of 14 percent launched businesses was in blue oceans (non-competing market space) which accounted to 38 percent of the total revenues and 61 percent of total profits. Apparently, the benefits of creating blue oceans are more promising. As more and more kopitiam will be trapped into red bloody oceans in this saturated market, hence, blue-ocean strategy is significant for the industry. Unfortunately, blue-ocean strategy is literally new to Malaysias businesses. Even though, many CEOs are aware of the existence of blue-ocean strategy but they have yet to fully understand and adopt the strategy to their businesses (as cited in Yap and Ang, 2007). Most recently, an interview session with Kotler on Getting savvy in newer media, narrated: They [Asian marketing professionals] need to improve their strategic capabilities with Blue Ocean thinking and Lateral Marketingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Companies that employ Blue-ocean strategy use innovation to find uncontested blue oceans of opportunities that their competitors have yet to discover, while lateral marketing requires companies to look beyond narrow, vertical segmentation and be creative to create fresh ideas and new markets. In response to such market, Kim Mauborgne (2005) provides set of analytical tools and framework in creating blue oceans. For example, both authors urge businesses to take a reverse course from focusing on existing customers to focus on noncustomers. By doing this, businesses are able to exploits new market space that never existed before. Air Asia, for example, a successful Malaysia low-cost airline that had identified a Blue Ocean to unlock the unaddressed market space by focusing on non-customers (i.e., the masses that cannot afford the expensive flight tickets and government employees) instead of customers (i.e., corporate and customers who can afford to buy expensive tickets) to avoid head on competition with Malaysia Airline (MAS) and other regional airlines (Lau, 2007). 5.0 The Untapped Market Knowing the nature of ones market is significant to business success. As such, the changes of cultural, social, personal, and psychological factors cannot simply be ignored in the fast-changing market. Friedman (2008) pinpoints that the world is heading to a new era called Energy-Climate Era whereas the world is currently facing three pitfalls namely, global warming, flattening, and crowding that affect all of us today. Hence, not surprisingly that sustainability has become a buzzword and being discussed by people from all walks of life. Even though, the sustainable practices are still hotly debated by both scholars and practitioners, but, this is a fundamental shift in how companies should function in this era. In fact, the contemporary environmental issue provides businesses the greatest prospect for return on investment and growth that never existed before (Friedman, 2008). However, going green is far more complicated than what we think. Numerous studies found that the main force for businesses being sustainable was mainly driven by legislation, marketing, and values (Gummerson, 1994). Typically, Malaysia is one of them from launching No-Plastic Day to stem duty exemption for green buildings and New Economic Model (NEM) that emphasize on economic growth and environment. No doubt, sustainable practices are still new to Malaysia, but, these new policies are important as a head start for Malaysia. As a result, several industries such as telecommunications, plantation, and real estate are taking different steps to balance between their business growth and sustainability. Unfortunately, sustainable practices with the initiatives to reduce food waste, water consumption, and energy consumption are literally new to the local FB industry. Revell Blackburn (2005) found that sustainability practices are considered as low priority because restaurateurs foresee their impact towards environment as insignificant. Besides, numerous studies found that low awareness of the environmental impact as one of the barriers to change (Hillary, 1995; Holland Gibbon 1997; Rutherfoorrd et. al. 2000). According to Consumer Association of Penang (2009), Malaysia restaurants discards more than 10 tons of left-over food daily with a total 490 tons carbon dioxide produced annually per restaurant. Even so, many restaurateurs have the attitude of wait and see on the environmental issues because they foresee the impact has yet to affect their business. Parsa et. al. (2005) denotes that inability to understand, anticipates, and adapt to the current market trend often lead to restaurant failures. As environmentally sustainable practices are important to todays consumers, hence, local FB industry such as kopitiam should take advantage of the opportunities by creating a win-win situation between the growth of business and sustainability of environment. Friedman (2008) indicates that, green is going from boutique to better, from a choice to a necessity, from a fad to strategy to win, from insoluble problem to great opportunity. Beside, Jogaratnam et. al. (1999) urges that restaurateurs should incorporate their business by adapting to the environmental changes and find ways to link with, respond to, integrate with, or exploit environmental opportunities. In summary, there is totally an untapped market from conventional kopitiam to sustainable or green kopitiam that emphasize on both growth and sustainability. 6.0 Conclusion There is a paradigm shift from traditional kopitiam to new concept kopitiam. The shifting has gained popularity among young generation, thus, more and more entrepreneurs venture into the business. Consequently, the business become intense and eventually turns the kopitiam business into red oceans. As such, businesses should take advantage of the blue open sea. Make itself impossible to be the target, isolate from possible followers at the same time lead them far away. The goal is to make the ocean theirs and prevent other competitors from invading it. Even so, in the long run there may be competitors that follow the same strategies making the pristine blue ocean red. The company would have to distance itself from the followers by changing their game plan to create another blue ocean.

The Dental Induced Bacteraemia

The Dental Induced Bacteraemia Your Uncle not the same as last time who has been taking clopidogrel for a number of years approaches you, a dental student, to explain something to him. After two weeks of weariness and fever, his doctor recently diagnosed Infective Endocarditus by blood cultures. An echocardiogram indicated a bicuspid aortic valve, and listening to the chest using a stethoscope the doctor could also detect a slight murmur. His doctor had asked him whether he had had any dental treatment recently. He admitted that he had not seen a dentist for a number of years and a cursory investigation revealed dental caries and inflammation of the gums. His reason for avoiding the dentist was because of bleeding in the mouth following visits. Your Uncle was quizzical about a number of things and has asked for your advice. He wants to know what information the echocardiogram and stethoscope can reveal. Further, he wants to understand the connection between oral health and an individuals general medical condition. Specifically, what oral bacteria are present, what roles do they play in oral biology, how they could cause systemic problems, and what sort of strategies could be employed to prevent infection. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Working in your groups, generate a list of leaning outcomes for this topic and return an individual copy by 23rd November by email to [emailprotected] These learning outcomes will be assessed, and intended learning outcomes returned to assist you with your report. Individually write a 2000 word manuscript in a scientific manner addressing the learning outcomes by 7th January (2013) and upload via QMplus. Please note that with QMplus the time cut-off is 23:55. Learning Outcomes 1. To identify the connection between clopidogrel and excessive bleeding gums. 2. To describe normal and abnormal heart valve formations. 3. To understand and describe the information that echocardiograms and stethoscope can provide regarding heart function. 4. To explain how oral derived bacterial flora can colonise heart valves. 5. To explain why the heart valves are susceptible to bacterial colonisation. 6. To describe when prophylactic antibiotics should be prescribed prior to oral treatments. Introduction Bacteraemia is a condition that is caused when bacteria enters the blood stream. When large amount of bacteria are present in the blood it can cause infections such as meningitis, pericarditis and endocarditus. Individuals with heart valve disorders, prosthetic joints, chronic diseases or weakened immune system are at increased risk of developing infections during Bacteraemia. Dental induced Bacteraemia is caused by minor injury from tooth brushing or from dental procedures. In the above problem based learning scenario we have been presented with our uncle who has been taking Clopidogrel for a number of years and has now been diagnosed with Infective Endocarditis by blood cultures. Below I will expand on the proposed learning outcomes. [2] FIG.1Identify the connection between Clopidogrel and excessive bleeding gums. Clopidogrel is an oral antiplatelet drug which reduces the risk of blood clots forming. It works by preventing Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), which causes platelets aggregation, from binding to its P2Y12 receptors on platelets and stops activation of the glycoprotein GPIIb/IIIa complex. This prevention reduces the likelihood of clots forming. [1] [3]Source:Harvey, R; Champe, P Lippincott illustrated reviews: Pharmacology, 4th edition. LWW: 2009. Blood clots can be very dangerous as they can cause blockages of blood vessels reducing the blood supply to an organ. A reduction in blood flow to the brain or heart can cause a stroke or heart attack. This explains Clopidogrels biggest use in patients who have had a recent heart attack or stroke; it helps to stop a reoccurrence. [1] Taking Clopidogrel therefore can cause excessive bleeding gums. If a blood vessel ruptures when brushing the teeth, through dental treatment or even by eating the gums will carry on bleeding for longer than usual because of the lack of platelet aggregation. http://birthnow.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Clopidogrel.gif Describe normal and abnormal heart valve formations. A healthy human heart consists of four chambers; two upper atria and two lower ventricles and four valves; two semilunar and two atrioventricular valves. The aortic and pulmonic valves are both semilunar valves and found in the arteries leaving the heart. The tricuspid and mitral valves are the atrioventricular valves and are found between the atria and ventricles. [5] Valves are made up of cusps which basically act as flaps or leaflets that are responsible for the one way flow of blood going into and out of a ventricle. Each valve has three leaflets, except the mitral valve, which only has two. [4] FIG.3Strong fibrous cords called chordae tendineae also known as heart strings are attached to the papillary muscles found on the floor of the ventricles and they act as anchors to stop the valves from inverting back into the atria. When the valve closes the papillary muscles contract and tenses the chordae tendineae to ensure the one way flow of blood. The valves are also supported and surrounded by a fibrous skeleton called annuli that also acts as another anchor. http://www.tokresource.org/tok_classes/biobiobio/biomenu/transport_system/heart-valves.jpg [6] FIG.4Blood flows from the right and left atria into the ventricles through the open tricuspid and mitral valves respectively. When the ventricles are full, the tricuspid and mitral valves shut. The ventricles now begin to contract and the pulmonic and aortic valves are forced open and blood is pumped out. Blood from the right ventricle passes through the open pulmonic valve into the pulmonary artery and carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs while blood from the left ventricle is oxygenated and travels through the open aortic valve into the aorta and goes to the rest of the body. This happens in a cycle, between heartbeats the ventricles will then relax, the semilunar valves will close and the atrioventricular valves will open and allow blood from the body and lungs to enter the heart. [7]http://mitral-valve-repair.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/heart-valves_heart-chambers.jpg Heart valves can however malfunction in several ways. Abnormal heart valve formations fall into two main groups; Regurgitation and Stenosis. Regurgitation of the valves is when they fail to close properly which causes the backward leakage of blood, this is often happens as a result of coronary heart disease, rheumatic heart disease or because or bacterial and viral infections including infective endocarditus. [8] Mitral regurgitation is the most common heart valve disorder being found in 20% of adults over the age of 55. [9] The backward leakage of blood causes an increase in atrial pressure and the wall of the left atrium will thicken by hypertrophy and possibly dilate. The pulmonary venous pressure will also rise which produces pulmonary oedema (fluid accumulation in the air spaces).It also reduces the blood supply to the rest of the so the left ventricle will also become thicker and the heart rate will increase to try and maintain normal cardiac output. Symptoms include shortness of breath, chest pains, dizziness and the pulse becomes faster. [10] [11] Stenosis of the heart valves occurs when the valve is narrowed and obstructs the forward flow of blood, it is usually a result of a congenital defect which has caused the valve to become inflamed or calcified. [12] FIG.5 Aortic Stenosis Aortic valve Stenosis is one of the most common valve disorders, when the valve doesnt open correctly there is reduced blood flow from the left ventricle into the aorta. In severe cases the walls of the left ventricle will become thicker as it has to work harder to maintain cardiac output into the aorta. Symptoms include dizziness, chest pain and an irregular heart beat. If the condition worsens it can lead to heart failure and more uncommonly to endocarditus.http://www.heart-valve-surgery.com/Images/aortic-stenosispicture-275.jpg Aortic Stenosis develops over time because or turbulent blood flow through a usually bicuspid aortic valve. Calcific valvular disease is an inflammatory process and the biggest cause of the disorder, calcification of the valve makes it very stiff and makes it difficult for the valve to open easily. Again as with regurgitation rheumatic fever and endocarditis are also causes of Stenosis. [11] [12] Valve deformations are more common in the left side of the heart but they do also occur in the right hand side. Stenosis and regurgitation can affect all four valves and not only the two mentioned above. [13] Other abnormal valve formations are congenital heart valve diseases which are those present at birth when the aortic or pulmonary valves dont form properly. Understand and describe the information that echocardiograms and stethoscope can provide regarding heart function. Echocardiography is a non-invasive technique used to assess cardiac structure and function by the use of ultrasound. Echoes are used to listen for congestion in the lungs, irregular heartbeats and murmurs. [11] There are several types of echocardiograms; transthoracic (TTE) are the most common. A device called a probe or transducer is placed on the chest and high frequency sound waves are used to produce sounds and images of the heart. It picks up echoes of sound waves and transmits them as electrical impulses which are then converted to 2D or 3D moving pictures on the screen. A Doppler echocardiogram shows the movement of blood. If a clear picture cannot be formed a small amount of liquid can be injected via IV to give a better picture. [14] Echocardiograms show details of the chambers including size, volume and thickness of the walls which helps to identify certain disorders including hypertension, the pumping function can also be reviewed and this can show conditions such as cardiomyopathy. Echoes also help with diagnosis of heart valve disorders including those mentioned above. It identifies the basic structures of the valve including thickness and movement and shows any abnormalities such as calcification and scaring. The Doppler will show any leakage through the heart valves and if there is a restriction in blood flow. Echoes of mitral regurgitation will show a dilated left atrium and left ventricle and echoes of aortic Stenosis will show the thickened calcified leaflets. In cases of suspected endocarditis a transesophageal echo can be used instead to show high-quality images of the heart and its valves. It is slightly more invasive and a long tube is passed down the oesophagus. [15] A stethoscope is a non invasive diagnostic instrument used to listen to or auscultate a patients heart, lungs, pulse and abdomen. It can also be used to help check blood pressure by listening to blood flow restoration when the sphygmomanometer cuff is removed. The diaphragm is placed on the patients chest where it picks up vibrations and amplifies them as sounds to the earpieces going via a hollow tube. [16]http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Stethoscope_(PSF).png A healthy heart produces a double beat or lub dub with little other sound when the semi lunar valves open and close. A stethoscope helps detect a heart murmur which makes a whooshing sound after the heart beat, this can indicate serious other problems such as infective endocarditis. [17] [18] FIG.6 S Mutans adhering to surface of mitral valve Explain how oral derived bacterial flora can colonise heart valves Explain why the heart valves are susceptible to bacterial colonisation. Streptococcus mutans are a type of bacteria found in dental plaque of the oral cavity that is largely responsible for causing tooth decay and cavities via the process of demineralisation. However on occasion after dental treatment or from brushing the teeth if blood is exposed it can enter the blood stream and cause bacteraemia. Diseased Aortic Valve Endocarditis typically develops on surfaces of the heart, which have become rough and sticky after sustaining endothelial damage after being subject to turbulent blood flow. (In bicuspid valves blood flow is more turbulent and this creates a high pressure which makes the surface of the valve rough and more susceptible to bacterial colonisation). [19] Platelets and fibrin attach to the endochardium surface and form a platform which the bacteria can attach to; vegetation is now formed. This vegetation can damage the heart valves and affect how they open and close, or breakaway and cause complications in other areas of the body. The aortic and mitral valves of the left side of the heart are the most common to be affected. S mutants are thought to be responsible for 50% of all bacterial endocarditus cases. Staphylococci found on the skin can also cause it. [11] The risk of developing endocarditis is increased in a person who has already got artificial heart valves, general heart valve conditions, congenital birth defects, rheumatic fever and those with a lowered immune system. The problem with when bacteria colonises heart valves is that the valves dont have a designated blood supply to them so white blood cells are unable to fight the infection that is forming there. [20] [21]Full-size image (41 K) [22] FIG.7 Transthoracic echocardiogram (a) and apical four-chamber view (b) demonstrating a well circumscribed vegetation measuring 2 ÃÆ'- 1 cm, confined to the posterior mitral valve leaflet and impinging on the left atrium. Describe when prophylactic antibiotics should be prescribed prior to oral treatments. The term prophylactic antibiotics refer to when antibiotics are given prior to an event as a preventative measure to infection. Where rheumatic fever is still common, control and prevention will prevent rheumatic heart disease and associated endocarditis. [11]Previously people with heart valve conditions and artificial valves were thought to be at high risk of developing endocarditus when receiving dental treatment and other surgical operations so a treatment of antibiotics, usually penicillin were given prior to the procedure in question. Today however this practice is questioned as there were no placebo trials conducted. The large scale use of penicillin as a preventative measure comes with risks such as anaphylactic shock so now as recommended by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) it is mainly only offered to those patients who have an infection beforehand and those with artificial valves. Conclusion In conclusion to this PBL I now understand that the presence of bacteria in the blood can have serious consequences all over the body and not just at the site of entry. In answer to my uncles question about preventing infection it would be worth noting that meticulous oral and skin hygiene is significant in preventing such infections like endocarditis. With regards to oral hygiene a dentist should be seen at least every 6 months so any issues that may be present can be resolved before they develop further. Brushing twice a day, flossing and keeping ones toothbrush clean are always that can prevent bacteraemia.